Coptic Language

By the time Christianity arrived in Egypt in the 1st century A.D., the country had been using two languages for several centuries: Egyptian and Greek. During this period sporadic attempts had been made to write Egyptian using Greek letters, a much simpler writing system that had the added advantage of displaying the vowels (ancient Egyptian; like modern Arabic and Hebrew, which did not record its vowels). In fact, the transition from one script to another probably had a lot to do with the spread of the new religion. As the New Testament was translated into Egyptian from Greek, many words could not be adequately rendered into Egyptian and so the Greek words came to be retained. This process continued with the result that the native Egyptian language underwent major changes in vocabulary and structure. It is now called Coptic and is a separate stage of language that was first recorded in writing c. 3000.

The first translations of the New Testament may have been oral and it is not known when they were first committed to writing. It is, however, quite certain that the translations were not made into a standard dialect, for such a thing did not exist. It was translated into various dialects throughout the country, a process which conveniently gives us a somewhat of an idea of how Christianity spread. The Old Testament was also translated into Coptic, especially the book of Psalms, which is undoubtedly the most popular book among the Egyptians. The entire corpus of the Psalms was and still is learned by heart.

It is perhaps not surprising that the Bible, in addition to being the repository of the Christian message, also provided heroes around whom legends could be woven for those of simple faith. These figures included Adam and Eve, Noah, Abraham, Joseph and Jeremiah. The most popular heroes were King Solomon and the Three Hebrews of the Fiery Furnace, who are often mentioned in connection with early martyrs and the punishment of being roasted alive. The principal heroes of the New Testament are the Holy family and John the Baptist. The story recounting the death of Joseph the carpenter clearly embodies pre-Christian elements relating it to the death of Osiris and the annual inundation of the Nile. The Apostles also feature as the heroes of various sacred legends.

Non-biblical literature may be divided into the following categories for the sake of convenience: patristic, hagiographical, monastic and heretical.

Patristic Literature

After the early days of the church, when it was the duty of the Apostles to spread the Christian message and establish church discipline, certain figures emerged in various Christian countries who commanded enormous respect for their understanding of Christianity and their ability to formulate Christian doctrine. They are usually known as the church fathers. Some of them were Egyptian, such as Origen, Athanasius and Cyril. Origen’s place among Egyptian church fathers is a rather curious one, since his theology was considered too intellectual by some, while others suspected him of not believing in the literal truth of the Bible. Athanasius and Cyril, on the other hand, were bastions of Orthodoxy. Many of their works were originally written in Greek and translated into Coptic, although Athanasius did write Easter letters directly in Coptic. Church fathers from other countries were also popular in Egypt. The most frequently mentioned was the 4th century fathers: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianze. The works of these fathers tend to be homilies or sermons on biblical subjects, in which Christian doctrine is explained and formulated.

Hagiographical Literature

The saints of the early church were mostly martyrs and they are commemorated in martyrologies, a particular type of hagiographical literature. Although most Egyptian martyrs suffered their fate under Diocletian in the Great Persecution (c. 304) some of the earliest hagiographical records in Coptic concern martyrs who were not, in fact, Egyptian. One such martyr was Ignatius who suffered in the persecution under Trajan (97-117). The Coptic version presents a somewhat unusual account of the martyrdom, in the sense that it does not narrate the

series of tortures but presents them in the form of a dialogue between the martyr and the Roman emperor, so that the exchange resembles those found in classical Greek drama, with the Roman senate providing the role of the chorus. Martyrdom was regarded as rebirth into eternal life. Self-sacrifice was, in fact, a way of overcoming death, rather like all the mortuary literature of Pharaonic Egypt (from the Pyramid Texts c. 2300 B.C. onwards). This battle with death is at the core of all hagiographic writings and is vividly illustrated in many of them.

One of the most popular of the ‘military’ saints, not only in Egypt but throughout Christendom, was George. Probably of Palestinian origin, he soon became associated with Cappadocia (in modern Turkey), as a result of his military service there. By refusing to deny Christ and swear allegiance to the imperial Gods, he subjected to the most brutal tortures and died. However, the Archangel Michael was sent to revive him so that he was able to do battle repeatedly with death. This strikes the western reader as somewhat excessive (the passion of George was actually banned in a decree allegedly issued by the Roman Pope Gelasius in the 5th century); but if it is regarded as an allegorical expression, then it contains a profound statement concerning the invincibility of life. Certainly the martyr dies, but not before demonstrating that believing in Christ can overcome death and lead to the reward of eternal life.

Monastic Literature

Biographies of the great monastic leaders exist in Coptic, the most famous being that of Anthony, written shortly after his death by the Patriarch Athanasius (c. 356). It was undoubtedly one of the key documents in popularizing monastic life. Another composition that helped to institutionalize monasticism was the Rule (Regula) formulated by Pachomius, which was summarized in Latin by Saint Jerome (c. 400) and served as the inspiration for the rules of Basil the Great (c. 360) and John Cassian (c. 415). All of these eventually influenced Benedict in the formulation of his rule in central southern Italy in the northwest desert between Alexandria and Cairo have also become familiar to posterity through a composition known as Apophthegmata Patrum (Sayings of the Fathers), which were probably collected by a disciple of one of the monks. Comparison of these sayings with earlier so-called ‘wisdom’ literature of the Pharaonic period has revealed remarkable similarities.

Heretical Literature

The 20th century has witnessed two major discoveries of Coptic versions of heretical literature in Egypt. One of Manichaean books in 1933 in Middle Egypt (near Assiut); the other of Gnostic books in 1945 in Upper Egypt (near Nag Hammadi). The word ‘heretical’ is used to describe them because they contain a kind of subversive Christianity. Manichaeans were named after the historical figure Mani, a Persian doctor who lived from 215 to 275 A.D. He achieved notoriety in the Persian court, but was later executed. He propagated a ‘dualist’ view of the world, not unfamiliar in Persia, where the opposition between the dual forces of Light and Darkness had long been a part of the spiritual vocabulary (since the days of Zoroaster in the 6th century B.C.) Mani also emphasized asceticism. The combination was deeply appealing to many Christians; so much so that Saint Augustine was an adherent for nine years before discovering that his way to God lay through the Christian church. Although Manichaeism probably did not survive in Egypt for very many centuries, the presence of Manichaean documents in Chinese Turkestan dating to the 14th century indicates a survival there.

The other group of books is less easy to define, though usually described as Gnostic (which derives from the Greek word for ‘knowledge’). The knowledge conveyed in these documents claims to reveal the true nature of reality: the world which man inhabits is a mistaken attempt to copy the real world of light where the unknowable Father is present. It is, to say the least, a negative view of the world. It offended Christians because the status of God, the creator was reduced to that of a bungling idiot. Some documents from Nag Hammadi certainly contain this central Gnostic myth, but there are also texts which are not particularly Gnostic. Some Orthodox Christian texts which dwell on the virtues of asceticism; other are Hermetic texts which record a religious philosophy combining elements of Neo-Platonism thought and Egyptian myth.

SOURCE : Cairo: The Coptic Museum & Old Churches

BY: Gawdat Gabra

Gawdat Gabra, a former director of the Coptic Museum, is the author or editor of numerous books related to the literary and material culture of Egyptian Christianity, including Coptic Monasteries: Egypt's Monastic Art and Architecture, Christian Egypt: Coptic Art and Monuments through Two Millennia (both AUC Press 2002), and Christianity and Monasticism in the Fayoum Oasis (AUC Press, 2005). He is the co-editor of the three volumes of The Popes of Egypt (vol. I: AUC Press, 2004).